What Happened On July 28th?
On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, setting off a chain reaction that led to World War I. Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration that morning, starting the hostilities. This decision followed intense debate within the Austro-Hungarian government, with figures like Foreign Minister Leopold Berchtold and Chief of General Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf strongly advocating for war.
News of the declaration spread rapidly, stirring Austria-Hungary to mobilize its forces. Soldiers and civilians alike felt the fervor. The Austro-Hungarian military, composed of various ethnic groups, faced major coordination and communication challenges. Despite these issues, the empire moved forward, determined to subdue Serbia.
In Serbia, the government responded quickly by ordering full mobilization. The army, seasoned from the recent Balkan Wars, prepared for the conflict. Serbian citizens, though aware of the grave danger, showed remarkable resolve. Men reported for duty, and families braced for the unknown.
A chain of events led to the declaration on June 28th. Gavrilo Princip, a member of the nationalist group Black Hand, shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia, accusing it of supporting the terrorists. The ultimatum delivered to Serbia on July 23rd demanded harsh concessions, including allowing Austro-Hungarian officials to participate in the investigation on Serbian soil.
Serbia’s response, though conciliatory, rejected some key demands, particularly those infringing on its sovereignty. This refusal angered Austria-Hungary. Influenced by Conrad von Hötzendorf, the Austro-Hungarian Council of Ministers decided on war. Von Hötzendorf had long advocated for a preemptive strike against Serbia, viewing it as a threat to the empire’s stability.
The Tipping Point
Austria-Hungary’s declaration prompted Russia to begin partial mobilization. Tsar Nicholas II, pressured by his military advisors and nationalists, ordered this mobilization despite his personal doubts. Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, viewed Russian mobilization as an act of aggression and prepared for conflict.
Germany’s Kaiser Wilhelm II, after receiving assurances of support from Austria-Hungary, issued an ultimatum to Russia to halt its mobilization. When Russia refused, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1st. Germany’s war plans relied heavily on precise railway timetables for quick troop movements, showcasing the importance of logistical planning in their strategy.
Alliances Ignite
The complex web of alliances quickly drew other nations into the conflict. France, bound by treaty to Russia, began its own mobilization. Germany, following its military strategy, declared war on France on August 3rd. The plan aimed to quickly defeat France before turning to the eastern front against Russia. Germany’s invasion of neutral Belgium on August 4th brought Britain into the war, committed to defending Belgian neutrality under the Treaty of London (1839).
European leaders exchanged desperate last-minute negotiations and telegrams, but they failed to stop the war. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Nicholas II, who were cousins, exchanged a series of messages known as the “Willy-Nicky” telegrams, trying to prevent war. However, these personal appeals could not overcome the tide of militaristic and nationalistic pressures.
Mobilization orders unleashed vast armies across Europe. Austria-Hungary mobilized over three million men, aiming to crush Serbia quickly. The Austro-Hungarian military faced significant logistical challenges. Its diverse army, composed of various ethnic groups speaking different languages, struggled with coordination and morale.
March To Battle
Serbia, though smaller, mobilized its forces efficiently, benefiting from high morale and defensive positions. The Serbian army, experienced from the recent Balkan Wars, prepared well for Austria-Hungary’s initial assaults. Early battles, such as the Battle of Cer, saw Serbia achieve surprising victories.
Austria-Hungary’s diverse army included units such as the Bosnian regiments, known for their fierce loyalty and skill. These troops, speaking multiple languages and coming from various backgrounds, had to overcome significant communication barriers.
Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia set off a cascade of events that reshaped the world. The conflict quickly spread beyond Europe. The Ottoman Empire, eyeing territorial gains and influenced by its alliance with Germany, joined the Central Powers in October 1914. Japan, leveraging its alliance with Britain, declared war on Germany and seized German holdings in China and the Pacific.
The World Engulfed
The war’s impact reached far and wide. Colonies across Africa and Asia joined the conflict, supplying troops and resources. In the Middle East, the war spurred revolts and reshaped borders, sowing seeds of future conflicts. The British and French secretly negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement, planning the division of Ottoman territories even as the war raged on.
The United States, though not officially entering the war until 1917, provided significant financial and material support to the Allies. American banks loaned vast sums to the Allies, creating a financial stake in their victory.
Descent Into Chaos
As 1914 turned to 1915, the war continued with horrific losses. Trench warfare on the Western Front became a brutal stalemate, with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage. Soldiers faced new horrors, such as poison gas attacks, which caused agonizing deaths and long-term suffering for survivors.
The Eastern Front saw vast, bloody battles, with fluctuating fortunes for the Central Powers and the Allies. The Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 resulted in a crushing defeat for Russia, showcasing the strategic prowess of German generals Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff. Millions of Russian soldiers were conscripted, many of whom were poorly equipped and trained.
New technologies and tactics, such as tanks and aerial combat, introduced unprecedented horrors to the battlefield. The human cost was staggering, with millions dead and wounded, and entire cities and regions devastated. The war also saw the use of propaganda on an unprecedented scale, with all sides seeking to maintain morale and demonize the enemy.
